Machiavelli+summary


 * __The Prince__**

Chapter 1: All states are either republics or principalities (Principalities= The jurisdiction of a prince; a country in which a prince's title is identified). Principalities may be hereditary, entirely new, or annexed to an existing state. They may be ruled by a prince or live in freedom. Finally, these states may be gained by the force of the ruler (or others), or by fortune or ability.

Chapter 3: One inherent difficulty in principalities is that men often want to change their rulers, hoping for something better. It is easier to maintain control of territories which have been annexed, as they are used to being ruled. A state which has a vastly different culture is harder to hold. This can be aided by going to live in this state (as the prince can have a direct influence and be seen by the people there) or send a few colonies to the new country. A prince must strive to be the most powerful out of all the surrounding countries, or another state is likely to take their newly acquired territory.

Chapter 5: There are three main methods to maintain control of a new state--
 * Ruin the state
 * Reside in the state
 * Give the state over to their own ruling

Chapter 6: The prince who has relied least on fortune will be in the strongest position to rule. Examples of Moses, Cyrus, Romulus, and Theseus ( //"those who by valorous ways become princes, like these men, aquire a principality with difficulty, but they keep it with ease")// enforcing those states acquired by their force or ability. Those who have the greatest ability will have far less difficulty keeping a state than those of lesser ability. Ability is more desireable than fortune when aquiring new territories - //"...those who by their own abiliy and not through fortune, have risen to be princes..."// Along with ability; a prince must have a strong force, in order to enforce their consitutions.

Chapter 8: There are some who seize power by means of deceit and wickedness. These evil deeds (if possible) should be done all at once, so the prince may gain power and then work on reassuring and winning over his subjects--if the deeds are carried out over time, the prince will have a more negative image.

Chapter 9: A civil principality is one which places one leading citizen in control with consent of the other citizens. This can be attained by either gaining favour of the nobles or favour of the people - //"... a leading citizen becomes the prince of his country...by the favour of his fellow citizens...or by the favour of the nobles."// A civil principlity is not gained through evil deeds. Nobles create a prince of one of their own in order to rule through him. It would be easier to gain power this way but harder to keep it because a prince would be surrounded by people who believe they are his equals and therefore would be harder to manage. The people also champion one of their own as a way to resist the oppression of the nobles. They hope to be defended by their prince. If one becomes a prince through the people he will be able to satisfy them much more easily than nobles, as all they will really ask is not to be oppressed. Either way, a prince must gain the favour of the people; as they will be loyal - provided the prince is good to them. In order to ensure the people's loyalty in both good and bad times the prince should make sure that they always need the state and their prince. Because of this a prince should not rule through a magistrate because the the people will be more inclined to obey the magistrate, and not him, if there is defiance within the magistrate.

Chapter 15: To maintain control of the state, it is necessary for a Prince to understand when it is advantageous to do wrong. The Prince may also take comfort in knowing that these deeds will actually maintain long term security, as opposed to the appearance and righteous virtu, which often leads to ruin. A prince cannot base their rule on trying to live up to the ideal of the 'best regime' as this is how states are really run. If a prince tries to live up to such an ideal he will be destroyed by the realities of evil. Sometimes it is necessary to do wrong. A prince should not feel bad if he acts in a less-than-virtuous way, as without such acts that state will be lost. //"...it will be found that something which looks like virtue, if followed, would be his ruin; whilst something else, which looks like vice, yet followed brings him security and prosperity."//

Chapter 19: A Prince must avoid being hated. He must guard himself with friends to battle internal disturbances and an army against external strife. If a prince is well armed he will have good friends. By not being hated or dispised, any internal disturbances will be unlikely. This is because i.e., conspiracies to over-throw the prince will not be met with enthusiasm; as citizens like their prince and thus not many people will join.

Chapter 21: Renown. If a Prince is in this position due to his 'achievements and designs', his people are unlikely to rebel since their minds are stupefied by deeds. A Prince is also respected whether he be an ally or foe, and not neutral in a conflict between two powerful neighbours, since the inevitable conqueror and conquered, will both look unfavourably towards you. Therefore a prince must know how to chose the lesser evil. A prince should strive to gain a reputation as a //"...great and remarkable man".// A prince should demonstrate that he appreciates those who have great abilities, and reward them. He should give his citizens celebrations (festivals etc). If his states consists of smaller bodies, a prince should show his support for these BUT he must neer let them over-rule his authority.


 * __Discourses on Livy__

Chapter II: Types of Republics**

Governments often get spilt into 3 categories: Lawmakers use these 3 categories to guide the types of laws that are created for a state. These 3 are seen as 'good'. They can easily turn into 3 which are 'bad':
 * **Principality** [Monarchy]
 * **Of The Best** [Aristocracy]
 * **Popular** [Democracy]

Aristocracy => State of the Few** [Oligarchy] Therefore, the 3 good types of government are easily corrupted and become their opposite //"...becuase of the rememblance that virtu and vice have..."// All governments will eventually experience all types of government - good and bad: Until they return to principality and begin all over again. //"I say therefore that all the mentioned forms are inferior because of the brevity of their existance..."// The solution is to adopt laws which establish a government of mixed regimes that incompases all 3 good types //"...because when...in the same city...one watches the other."// This is what Rome became.
 * Principality => Tyranny
 * Popular => Anarchy**
 * Principality=> Tyranny=> Aristocracy=> Oligarchy=> Popular=> Anarchy**


 * Chapter xiv: Roman Religion**


 * Auguries**= Those who interpret the movement of birds to deliver comminications from the gods.
 * Roman troops relied on the auguries to tell them whether it was prudent to go into battle. If yes, the soldiers would fight confidently and usually win.
 * Powerful men tried to manipulate the auguries to achieve their ends. For instance, telling the troops that the birds g=had indicated that they should fight when they had not.
 * Religion is important because one can take advantage of religion (with the right intentions) to achieve the ends of the state.


 * Chapter xvi: In the case of a hostile public**
 * Leaders must be good to the people and make them friendly or his rule will be short lived
 * A hostile general public will mean that a Prince's rule is unstable. He will never be able to know who all his enemies are//: "...he who has the general public hostile to him can never make sure of them..."//
 * Using cruelty against them will not work; it will on,y weaken his rule.
 * A prince should identify what the people want: //1) " to avenge themselves against those who cause their slavery" 2) "To regain their liberty"//
 * A prince can win them over by first; killing those that have upset the people i.e., the nobles and thus avenging them.
 * A prince cannot allow people liberty but he can give them security. This can be done by //"...creating insitutions and laws which...gives realization to the general security of the people."//
 * Chapter xx: Succession**
 * A republic should establish a way in which Princes can be elected, so that there will be //" ...an infinate number of princes of great virtu who are successors one after another."//
 * If princes are not elected they may not be good kings and this is not good for the state.

//"...no well ordered republic ever cancels the misbehaviour of its citizens by their merits..."//
 * Chapter xxiv: Rewards and Punishments**
 * A republic should never show mercy to those who have done wrong.
 * A republic should reward those who do good.
 * A person who does good by the state will be rewarded and will therefore gain a favourable reputation. He may begin to believe that if he does wrong he will not be punished; if he is proven right he will continue to do bad things.
 * Chapter xxix: Gratitude**
 * One should always express gratitude for the good deeds of one of their citizens.
 * They should not be suspicious and ungrateful of those that do good deeds. Or those who have done good and have not been rewarded may try to get what they feel they deserve by force. I.e., Caesar who took Rome by force after being met with ingratitude.
 * A prince should not punish those who do good deeds because the are suspicious of the power and motives of a good citizen because then citizens will not do good deed (like defend the state) because they fear punishment.
 * Of all states //" Rome was the least ungrateful."//


 * Chapter Liii: Making Decisions**
 * The easiest way to ruin a republic is to involve the people in a "brave enterprise" i.e., war. Because they will always approve such enterprises without proper knowledge.

//"...A people that commands and is well organised will be stable, prudent, grateful...or even better than a prince."// //"...the people are far superior in goodness and in glory"//
 * Chapter Lviii: Rule of Many**
 * The people are wiser than a prince.
 * The people will adhere to the laws, whereas a prince may not.
 * It is important, however, that the people are controlled by laws.
 * Princes are easily swayed, the people are not.
 * A prince may be superior in creating laws, forming civil governments etc, but the people are superior in maintaining the insitutions.
 * The people are cruel to those who oppose the common good, whereas a prince is cruel to those who oppose him.
 * Book 2, Chapter i: Virtu and Fortune**
 * It is better to have virtue than fortune when taking over states.
 * Book 2, Chapter 2: Population**
 * To create a great empire one needs a large population.
 * A large population can be gained "...//by love and by force"//
 * Love**: Making it easy for forigners to live in the new state.
 * Force**: Destroying the neighbouring states and sending their population to live within your state.
 * A small republic cannot conquer those who are larger, and if they do; they will be easily over-thrown.